Additive Manufacturing Environmental Impact Evaluation Tool

Based on input parameters, this tool calculates four values:

1. Printing Process Energy: This is the estimated energy consumption of the print job. For formulas, see the section “Technology-specific Models”.
2. Printing Process Emissions: These are the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions resulting from the printing process energy use. They’re calculated from printing process energy using the data for average GHG intensity of the EU energy mix (see the details in the section “Total GHG Emissions Formula” below). GHG emissions are expressed in gCO₂eq.
3. Selected Material Emissions: These are the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions resulting from the production of the printing material (from raw resources to the plastic material used in printing). To estimate this, we used the available data from LCA (Lifecycle Analysis) databases and individual LCA studies (see the sources below). GHG emissions are expressed in gCO₂eq.
4. Total Emissions (printing process + material): Total emissions are obtained by adding printing process emissions and material emissions. Other sources of emissions, such as transport, are out of scope of this tool.

The tool is intended to be simple enough, but offering good enough insights based on available data regarding the most important factors that impact the GHG emissions of AM.

• Energy: Mega-Joules (MJ)

• Power: Watts (W)

• Printing time: Minutes (min)

• Volume: Cubic centimeters (cm³)

• Temperature: Degrees Celsius (°C)

• Mass: Kilograms (kg)

Below are the models used to calculate the printing process energy consumption, based on the technology and input parameters.

FFF (Fused Filament Fabrication)

For FFF, you can choose between two models:

Rated Power Model:

E = 0.431 · 10^-6 · P · t · 60

where the input parameters are:

• P = Rated power (W)

• t = Printing time (min); the factor 60 is used to convert minutes into seconds

This model uses the power (or size) of the printer as a predictor of energy consumption. It’s useful when comparing different sizes of printers. The calculation is based on a model, proposed by D. Manford and H. D. Budinoff (Manford, Budinoff, 2024).

Temperature-time Regression (TTR) Model:

E = -56 · 10^-3 MJ + 7 · 10^-6 MW/°C · T_E · t  + 89 · 10^-6 MW/°C · T_B · t

where the input parameters are:

• T_E = Extruder temperature (°C)

• T_B = Bed temperature (°C)

• t = Printing time (min)

This model uses bed and extruder temperatures as predictors of energy consumption. It’s useful for comparing different settings and materials that require different temperatures. The calculation is based on a model, proposed by N. Hopkins et al. (Hopkins et al., 2021).

SLA (Stereolithography)

E = 20.4 W · 10^-6 · t · 60

Where the input parameter is:

• t = Printing time (min); the factor 60 is used to convert minutes into seconds

This is an empirical model, described by N. Hopkins et al. (Hopkins et al., 2021). Power consumption was directly measured using the Formlabs Form 1+ SLA printer, which has a 60W power supply. The average real power consumption during printing was 20.4 W. The model does not include post-processing.

SLS (Selective Laser Sintering)

E = 10^-6 · P · t · 60

where the input parameters are:

• P = Average power (W); Because we could not find any power models, tested across various SLS printers, the calculator uses three approximate categories for actual power consumption, approximated from technical datasheets:

  • Small SLS printer: 2 kW
  • Medium SLS printer: 5 kW
  • Large SLS printer: 10 kW

• t = Printing time (min); the factor 60 is used to convert minutes into seconds

This calculation is based on the basic relationship between average power, time and energy. Powder waste is not included in this model and should be accounted for additionally.

Total GHG Emissions are calculated by adding up printing process emissions and emissions from material production. Other sources of emissions, such as transport, are out of scope of this calculator. This is the formula used:

GHG_total = E · 258 gCO₂eq ⁄ 3.6 MJ + V · ρ · EI_m

The first part in the equation corresponds to printing process emissions and is calculated from printing process energy consumption and average GHG emission intensity of the EU energy mix:

• E = Energy used during printing (in MJ) – see the section “Technology-specific Models” to see how this is calculated

• 258 gCO₂eq/kWh (1 kWh = 3.6 MJ) is the 2022 EU-27 electricity emission intensity (EEA source, last checked in April 2025)

The second part in the equation corresponds to emissions from the production of the material needed for the print. The quantities used in the calculation are:​

• V = Volume of printed part (cm³) – user input

• EIₘ = Emission intensity of the material production (gCO₂eq/g) – see the section “Data and References” below to see the data used

• ρ = Density of material – see the section “Data and References” below to see the data used

Below is a list of material-related data used in the calculations of material GHG emissions (for descriptions of the calculations, see the section “Total GHG Emissions Formula” above). Sources of the data are also included.

PLA (Polylactic Acid) – used in FFF:

• EIₘ = 4.79 gCO₂eq/g (Source: GaBi LCI database, February 2025)

• ρ = 1.24 g/cm³ (Source: Prusa, 2022)

ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) – used in FFF:

• EIₘ = 3.22 gCO₂eq/g (Source: GaBi LCI database, February 2025) *

• ρ = 1.04 g/cm³ (Source: Simplify3D, 2025)

*Data is for granulate – only this was available in LCI databases. Producing a filament involves extra production steps, which means the value is actually higher.

PETG (Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol) – used in FFF:

• EIₘ = 6.27 gCO₂eq/g (Source: Kimya, 2023)

• ρ = 1.23 g/cm³ (Source: Simplify3D, 2025)

TPU (Thermoplastic Polyurethane) – used in FFF and SLS:

• EIₘ = 4.41 gCO₂eq/g (Source: GaBi LCI database, February 2025) *

• ρ = 1.21 g/cm³ (Source: Bitfab, 2025)

*The same value is used in FFF and SLS, because the LCI databases only include a single value. In reality, the footprints of filament and powder should be slightly different, because different production processes are involved.

Nylon – used in FFF and SLS:

• EIₘ = 6.57 gCO₂eq/g (Source: GaBi LCI database, February 2025) *

• ρ = 1.14 g/cm³ (Source: Simplify3D, 2025) **

*Only the value for PA6 was found in reliable LCI databases – the same approximate value is assumed for all types of Nylon and for both powder and filament form. In reality, the value should vary to some degree between different types and between powder and filament.

**Densities vary – an upper boundary of the range was taken into account.

PC (Polycarbonate) – used in FFF:

• EIₘ = 3.41 gCO₂eq/g (Source: GaBi LCI database, February 2025)

• ρ = 1.20 g/cm³ (Source: Simplify3D, 2025)

HIPS (High Impact Polystyrene) – used in FFF:

• EIₘ = 2.18 gCO₂eq/g (Source: GaBi LCI database, February 2025)

• ρ = 1.04 g/cm³ (Source: Simplify3D, 2025)

PP (Polypropylene) – used in FFF and SLS:

• EIₘ = 1.63 gCO₂eq/g (Source: GaBi LCI database, February 2025) *

• ρ = 0.90 g/cm³ (Source: Simplify3D, 2025)

*Data is for granulate – only this was available in LCI databases. Producing a filament (for FFF) or powder (for SLS) involves extra production steps, which means the values are actually higher.

PPS (Polyphenylene Sulfide) – used in FFF:

• EIₘ = 6.39 gCO₂eq/g (Source: Ecoinvent 3.8 LCI database, February 2025)

• ρ = 1.35 g/cm³ (Source: Mitsubishi, 2025)

Generic Photocurable Resin – used in SLA:

• EIₘ = 3.85 gCO₂eq/g (Source: Bianchi et al., 2023)

• ρ = 1.23 g/cm³ (Source: Guang Hu et al., 2019)